This post was originally on my employer's website https://cmd.com, but the website is no longer up due Elastic's acquisition of Cmd. I got permission to move this post to my personal blog. The old title used to be "How Zig Makes libbpf Easy", but I've opted for something a bit more direct here.
Also it's been a couple years since the post, I've gone onto working with embedded systems with Zig and haven't had enough time to flesh out BPF. Zig is promising for BPF programs, and the conclusions of this post are incorrect with hindsight. The next step for BPF in zig is adding functionality to help with BTF generation. BTF is automatically generated for Zig, however we need a way to rename the debug info for a type so that it matches the corresponding C type. (Eg. in Zig debug info a type might be named .bpf.kernel.TaskStruct, and we need a way to make it task_struct.
Heads up, this is a fairly detailed deep dive into some of what libbpf does and knowledge on BPF is required. Luckily I have you covered with this talk I gave on BPF.
libbpf is a C library that gives you a nice API for opening and loading BPF bytecode contained in Executable and Linkable Format (ELF) files. You declaratively lay out your components in a single compilation unit: BPF maps as global variables, programs as functions. This gets compiled into your ELF, and the loader does everything else for you, even attach programs to certain hook points.This is a huge improvement over BCC where you’d write a C based BPF program in a python string literal, as well as use python as a preprocessor.
We’re going to learn about one of the operations libbpf automates when loading your bytecode. BPF maps are used as general-purpose storage between userspace and executions of BPF programs. When creating a map we receive a file descriptor and that needs to be stored in the binary blob containing a program before that it’s loaded into the kernel. Luckily the information on how to do this is stored in the ELF file created from compiling your BPF code and libbpf knows how to parse this file so that it can orchestrate the above. Understanding these mechanics will enable developers to write their own loaders and improve their mental model of the BPF subsystem.
Furthermore, all code in this article will be written in Zig, a simple language with top notch error handling, compile-time capabilities, and a powerful build system. At the end, if you want to take a closer look at the code, you can find it in this repo. Don’t worry if you haven’t heard of Zig before, because you already know how to read it.
Challenges learning BPF
One of the challenges of learning BPF, and libbpf is no exception to this, is that large swaths of it are undocumented (thought that is starting to improve. When I first started learning BPF this library constantly posed an opaque barrier to understanding. My goal was to learn how userspace should correctly instrument specific syscalls, so I dove into the source to find out. While this was going on I was also learning Zig, and discovered that it was able to produce decent bytecode out-of-the-box™ (that is, no hacks required).
There are a large number of other operations that libbpf does, for example, somehow loading the read-only section of the binary separate from everything else. It also expects programs to have their own section using a naming scheme that declares how/where the program needs to be loaded. Here you can find a massive table laying out this information I have yet to decipher, but I digress, let’s get to our BPF program.
Baby's first BPF Program
const std = @import("std");
const mem = std.mem;
const bpf = @import("bpf");
export var events linksection("maps") = PerfEventArray.init(256, 0);
export fn bpf_prog(ctx: *bpf.SkBuff) linksection("socket1") c_int {
var time = bpf.ktime_get_ns();
events.event_output(ctx, bpf.F_CURRENT_CPU, mem.asBytes(&time)) catch {};
return 0;
}
So this is a pretty innocuous example, all we’re doing is getting time through a BPF Helper function, and then writing it to a Perf Event Buffer, but the important part is that the program is referencing a BPF map. Building this is extremely simple, Zig build scripts are written in Zig (a nice resource on that), and all we have to do is target a freestanding BPF architecture, and I’ve set the endianness to match whatever we’re targeting for the main userspace program.
const std = @import("std");
const Builder = std.build.Builder;
const builtin = @import("builtin");
pub fn build(b: *Builder) void {
const target = b.standardTargetOptions(.{});
const obj = b.addObject("probe", "src/probe.zig");
obj.setTarget(std.zig.CrossTarget{
.cpu_arch = switch ((target.cpu_arch orelse builtin.arch).endian()) {
.Big => .bpfeb,
.Little => .bpfel,
},
.os_tag = .freestanding,
});
obj.setBuildMode(.ReleaseFast);
obj.setOutputDir("src");
}
You’ll also notice that I’m outputting the compiled object file to the src directory. That’s because Zig has the @embedFile() builtin which will let me embed a file as an array of bytes within the main program, this way I have a single binary at the end of the build process.
Parsing ELF
We’ll be attaching the BPF program to a raw socket on the loopback device so that it’s run when packets are sent or received. Now let’s inspect the ELF (only showing what’s important):
$ llvm-objdump --section-headers src/probe.o
src/probe.o: file format ELF64-BPF
Sections:
Idx Name Size VMA Type
0 00000000 0000000000000000
1 .text 00000000 0000000000000000 TEXT
2 socket1 00000070 0000000000000000 TEXT
3 .relsocket1 00000010 0000000000000000
4 maps 00000014 0000000000000000 DATA
...
15 .BTF 00000201 0000000000000000
16 .BTF.ext 00000090 0000000000000000
17 .rel.BTF.ext 00000060 0000000000000000
...
23 .symtab 00001920 0000000000000000
24 .shstrtab 00000135 0000000000000000
25 .strtab 00000017 0000000000000000
Section socket1 contains our program and can be seen as an array of instructions. maps similarly is an array of BPF map definitions (in our case and array of one map):
pub const Insn = packed struct {
code: u8,
dst: u4,
src: u4,
off: i16,
imm: i32,
};
pub const MapDef = extern struct {
type: u32,
key_size: u32,
value_size: u32,
max_entries: u32,
map_flags: u32,
};
The loader can read the maps section directly and use BPF_MAP_CREATE with the bpf() syscall to create all of our maps. Next comes the cool part, we have that array of instructions that makes up our program:
$ llvm-objdump -d src/probe.o
src/probe.o: file format ELF64-BPF
Disassembly of section socket1:
0000000000000000 bpf_prog:
0: bf 16 00 00 00 00 00 00 r6 = r1
1: 85 00 00 00 05 00 00 00 call 5
2: 7b 0a f8 ff 00 00 00 00 *(u64 *)(r10 - 8) = r0
3: bf a4 00 00 00 00 00 00 r4 = r10
4: 07 04 00 00 f8 ff ff ff r4 += -8
5: bf 61 00 00 00 00 00 00 r1 = r6
6: 18 02 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 r2 = 0 ll
8: 18 03 00 00 ff ff ff ff 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 r3 = 4294967295 ll
10: b7 05 00 00 08 00 00 00 r5 = 8
11: 85 00 00 00 19 00 00 00 call 25
12: b7 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 r0 = 0
13: 95 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 exit
I won’t go into detail for each instruction because the Cilium BPF Reference has a lot of great information that you can review yourself, but the one we’re interested in is #6. According to the signature of the perf_event_output() Helper we’re supposed to be loading a “map pointer” into register 2, and in the code we do give it the address of the map, but the instruction loads r2 with the value zero, or null. What we actually need to do for loading is replace the immediate value of zero with the file descriptor of the map — super funky. From the loader’s perspective it’s able to determine exactly which map goes where with the .relsocket1 section which contains links between entries in the .symtab section (symbols) and offsets within the program code. Here is a chunk of code showing my simplified Zig runtime loader rewriting those immediate values:
pub fn main() !void {
// ...
for (self.progs.items) |*prog| {
const rel_name = try std.mem.join(self.allocator, "", &[_][]const u8{ ".rel", prog.name });
defer self.allocator.free(rel_name);
const rel_section: *Elf.Section = for (self.elf.relos.items) |relo| {
if (mem.eql(u8, self.elf.get_section_name(relo), rel_name)) {
break relo;
}
} else continue;
for (std.mem.bytesAsSlice(Elf64_Rel, rel_section.data)) |relo| {
const insn_idx = relo.r_offset / @sizeOf(bpf.Insn);
const symbol = self.elf.get_sym_idx(@truncate(u32, relo.r_info >> 32));
const map_name = self.elf.get_str(symbol.st_name);
const map_fd = for (self.maps.items) |m| {
if (mem.eql(u8, m.name, map_name)) {
break m.fd.?;
}
} else continue;
prog.insns[insn_idx].src = bpf.PSEUDO_MAP_FD;
prog.insns[insn_idx].imm = map_fd;
}
}
}
Next Steps: Leveraging Zig’s comptime Features
Down the road I’m going to create a loader that takes advantage of Zig’s comptime abilities to parse the embedded object files. This would add compile time verification of the BPF environment’s contents, remove ELF parsing code from our executables and reduce the size of what’s being embedded — a full implementation of this equivalent is ways off, but I do have a proof-of-concept in our main program that asserts at compile-time that the embedded probe.o file contains the socket1 section. If it didn’t contain the section we would get a compile error.
Conclusion
libbpf is becoming the standard in how BPF is used in production, and while it’s great to have well known, trusted tools it’s also important to understand how our tools work and where they may fall short. I’m going to take this knowledge and try to leverage Zig’s comptime abilities to improve communicating the BPF environment to userspace and others might also find novel new ways to do this as well. BPF tech is moving fast and I’m excited for the future.